Trying to understand the generic masculine German texts use? It is a masculine noun such as Lehrer meant to cover everyone, though experiments often find readers picture men first.
This page is one part of the german language guide, which places the topic in the wider context of German.
| Item | Value |
|---|---|
| Study on compounds and inherently masculine nouns | Bross & Kurz, published 2023 |
| Finding for compound first elements | Interpreted rather generically, not as male-only |
| Compound example | Lehrerzimmer (Lehrer- as first element) |
| Spelling council on star or colon | No new recommendation (reported 19 July 2023) |
| Feminist linguistics questions the masculine as norm | Since the 1970s |
The figures come from Bross and Kurz’s article and a Sonntagsblatt interview report. Research and rulings can change, so check the sources before you rely on them.
What the generic masculine means in German
Most German nouns for people come in two forms: a masculine such as Lehrer and a derived feminine such as Lehrerin, as Fabian Bross and Lea-Sophie Kurz describe. The masculine form is typically viewed as ambiguous. It can point to men only, or to a mixed-gender group.
A 2019 piece on deutschland.de gives a plain example. A single Arzt and a single Ärztin are each named correctly, but when 99 Ärztinnen and ein Arzt form a group, the plural becomes die Ärzte.
How grammatical gender works in general is covered on the page about german grammatical gender.
Do readers picture men first? The male bias studies
Bross and Kurz report that a long series of psycholinguistic experiments, built on different methods, has demonstrated a so-called male bias. In the researchers’ wording, people tend to think of male representatives rather than a gender-balanced group when they process a generic masculine, as their article summarises.
The experiments used several designs:
- Continuing a story that opened with either a generic masculine or a gender-sensitive form.
- Naming people when the prompt used different forms of reference.
- Estimating the gender ratio of groups that were described in different ways.
- Measuring how fast sentences with different forms and continuations are read.
Examples cited by Bross and Kurz include Heise (2000), Braun and colleagues (1998), Stahlberg, Sczesny and Braun (2001) and Irmen and Roßberg (2004).
A related claim comes from Christine Olderdissen of genderleicht.de, quoted on deutschland.de. She says schoolgirls felt more drawn to a male-coded job such as Automechaniker when the title was read aloud as a pair form.
What the compound study adds
Bross and Kurz asked a narrower question. Does the same ambiguity hold for the first element of a compound, such as Lehrer- in Lehrerzimmer, which names a room and not people? Their own example makes the point: used referentially, the word refers to a kind of room, not to persons.
Their discussion of the empirical data points one way. First elements of N-N compounds and inherently masculine nouns such as Gast are interpreted rather generically, that is, not as referring to male individuals only, according to the article.
This does not cancel the earlier male bias results. It shows that the answer may depend on the kind of word and the way it is used.
Why reference matters in the debate
Bross and Kurz note that the older experiments were criticised, including by Zifonun (2018), because participants had to assign a sex to concrete, if fictional, people in concrete contexts. The critique is that such tasks may not tell you much about general statements.
The same article gives two sentences that show the difference. Lehrerinnen und Lehrer arbeiten an Schulen is a general statement about a group, where a pair form feels sensible. Gabi und Marianne sind Lehrerinnen names two specific people, where it does not, as the authors write.
The positions in public discussion can be summarised like this, using the 2019 deutschland.de overview:
- Language traditionalists say women know they are included when Ärzte is used.
- Genderleicht.de says that when women or trans and intersex people are meant in a text, they should be named explicitly.
- Researchers such as Bross and Kurz ask whether the answer depends on whether a word refers to actual people.
Alternatives linguists list, and what the spelling council said
Bross and Kurz name two alternatives to the generic masculine: pair forms such as Lehrerinnen und Lehrer, and the gender star as in Lehrer*innen, per their introduction. The linguist Sina Lautenschläger adds further options in a Sonntagsblatt report dated 19 July 2023:
- Participles, such as Teilnehmende instead of Teilnehmer.
- Abstractions, such as Lehrkraft or Lehrperson instead of Lehrer.
- Direct address and passive forms.
- Relative clauses, such as “Alle, die teilnehmen, erhalten eine Urkunde”.
On the rules, deutschland.de reported in 2019 that the Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung decided in 2018 not to include the star for the time being.
As of the Sonntagsblatt report of 19 July 2023, the council had given no new recommendation on signs such as the star or colon. The report adds that the council regards the development as unfinished and will keep observing it.
In the same interview, Lautenschläger said there is no compulsion to use gender-sensitive language and no ban on the generic masculine. More on the alternatives is on the page about gender-neutral german language.
The same Sonntagsblatt report says feminist linguistics began questioning why the masculine should be the norm in the 1970s, so the debate has a long history.
Frequently asked questions
What is the generic masculine in German?
Show answer
It is the use of a grammatically masculine person noun, such as Lehrer, for people of any gender or for a mixed group. Bross and Kurz describe such nouns as typically viewed as ambiguous between a male-only and a mixed-gender reading.
Do experiments show a male bias?
Show answer
According to Bross and Kurz, a long series of psycholinguistic experiments has demonstrated one. The same authors note that some of these studies were criticised for asking participants to assign a sex to concrete people.
Does the generic masculine work inside compounds like Lehrerzimmer?
Show answer
Bross and Kurz discuss data suggesting that such first elements are interpreted rather generically. That is a finding about compounds and inherently masculine nouns, not about every use of the masculine.
Is the generic masculine banned?
Show answer
In the Sonntagsblatt report of 19 July 2023, Sina Lautenschläger said there is no ban on the generic masculine and no compulsion to use gender-sensitive language. Rules can change, so check current guidance for your own context.
Which alternatives do linguists mention?
Show answer
Pair forms, the gender star, participles, abstract nouns such as Lehrkraft, direct address and relative clauses all appear in the sources used here. Which one fits depends on the text and on whether you mean specific people or a general group.
